Presented by J. B. Nangpuhan II (MPA Student) to Dr. C. G. Song, Professor of Public Administration at Chonnam National University, South Korea under 'Introduction to Public Administration'. Date presented: 13Oct2010.
SUMMARY
Key Terms:
1. policy – 정책
2. models – 모델
OVERVIEW ON POLICY ORIENTATION
For several years new trends toward integration have been gaining strength in America. This includes more rigid curriculum and devising survey courses to be introduced to students for them to learn broad fields of knowledge and to prepare the way for a vision of the whole. In the realm of policy, more attention has been given to planning, and to improving the information on which staff and operational decisions are based. There has been more awareness of the policy process as a suitable object of study in its own right, primarily in the hope of improving the rationality of the flow of decision.
v “Policy” is commonly used to designate the most important choices made either in organized or in private life.
v Policy orientation is focused upon the scientific study of policy where the needs of policy intelligence are uppermost. Thus, any item of knowledge, within or without the limits of the social disciplines may be relevant. It deals with the dominant current among many scholars and scientists specifically in the social sciences. Its aim is toward improved policy sciences of democracy.
o The first goal is directed toward policy process which aims for the development of a science of policy forming and execution by using the methods of social and psychological inquiry.
o The second goal is toward the intelligence needs of policy which is the improving of the concrete content of the information and the interpretations available to policy-makers, typically goes outside the boundaries of social science and psychology.
v The use of the term “policy sciences” for the purpose of designating the content of the policy orientation during any given period. It deals with the social, psychological, and natural sciences in so far as they have a bearing on the policy needs of a given period for adequate intelligence.
o The methods by which the policy process is investigated;
o The results of the study of policy; and
o The findings of the disciplines making the most important contributions to the intelligence needs of the time.
v The “policy scientists” is the term in common use for academic teachers and writers about government.
v The developments of research are very important for the understanding of human choice.
v The task of improving the intelligence function depends upon more effective techniques of communication, among research workers, policy advisers, and the makers of final decisions.
v The quality of the intelligence function at any given time depends upon the successful anticipation of policy needs before they have been generally recognized.
v Successful prediction depends upon the cultivation of certain patterns of thinking. This includes:
o The entire context of events (the world as a whole) which may have an impact upon the future problems of policy; and
o The cultivation of practice of thinking of the past and the future as parts of one context; using “developmental constructs” as tools for exploring the flow of events in time.
v Valuable contributions to the general theory of choice include the works of mathematician von Neumann and economist Morgenstern called “rational theory of choice” or also called “theory of games.”
THE EMPHASIS ON METHOD
v The meaning of current developments in studying policy orientation will be more visible by reviewing the trends between World War I and World War II.
o It was the turning point in the history of the social and psychological sciences in the US.
o Quantitative methods were used in the disciplines bringing rapid influence.
§ Economists were employed to estimate the facilities, manpower, and resources necessary to produce munitions needed by the armed forces. They could manipulate data in the light of a system of general postulates, laws, and hypotheses.
§ Psychologists used “intelligence tests” as a quick means of selecting personnel for various operations with the aid of statistical procedures.
v Charles E. Merriam, professor of political science at the University of Chicago, took the initiative in organizing the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) – a delegate body of scholarly associations in political science, economics, sociology, psychology, and other social sciences.
v The organization of the SSRC took national attention in the US during the postwar generation.
v Evidence on the stress on method was the Committee on Scientific Method which was appointed by the SSRC. In 1931, Stuart A. Rice edited: “Methods in Social Science: A Casebook” containing 52 methodological analyses of contributions to the social sciences.
v Another means of stimulating interest in method was the post-doctoral fellowship program of the SSRC encouraging young scholars to improve their scientific equipment by adding new technique to their primary specialization.
THE CONSEQUENCE OF DEPRESSION AND WAR
v During the WWII, economists continue to make great contributions in the mobilization of the American economy. The courageous forecasts and plans of a key group of economists on the War Production Board had a decisive impact on the tempo of effective participation of US in the war. This is evident through the works of Stacy May, Simon Kuznets, Robert Nathan, and their associates.
v Even psychologist became more effective during WWII by measuring aptitudes and personality structure. Prominent sociologists and social psychologists known during this time were Samuel A. Stouffer, his associates, Prof. L. L. Thurstone, and others.
v The battle for method is won (quantitative method). This is the point at which consideration of policy come into the picture.
v The “Knowledge for what?” is the title of the lecture of Professor Robert S. Lynd of Columbia University and long secretary of SSRC. The lecture was presented at Princeton University in 1939 in which he insisted the importance of utilizing all available means of acquiring knowledge in order to cope with the gigantic crises of the time.
v All the resources of our expanding social science, policy approach need to be directed toward the basic conflicts in our civilization which are so vividly disclosed by the application of scientific method to the study of personality and culture.
CHOOSING FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
v The basic emphasis of the policy approach is upon the fundamental problems of man in society and not upon the topical issues of the moment.
v Harry Stack Sullivan and other psychiatrists traced in detail the fundamental importance of self-esteem for the healthy evolution of human personality. This is based on the belief that “unless the infant and the child are able to love themselves, they are incapable of loving each other.”
v By studying the psychotic, neurotic, and psychopathic manifestations of distorted development, the sources of human destructiveness can be changed. This move laid for a profound reconstruction of culture by continual study and emendation.
v Culture has impact on personality formation based on the works of Dr. Sullivan and his colleagues.
THE USE OF MODELS
v The richness of the context in the study of interpersonal relations is such that it can be expressed only in part in quantitative terms. Convincing results can be obtained by studies which are but partially summarized in numbers.
v Social scientists and psychiatrists have always derived their most fruitful hypotheses from complicated models.
v The New Deal approach by Franklin D. Roosevelt was a brilliant success in the sense that a far-reaching economic crisis was met by policies which were far short of the authoritarian measures of a Fascist or Communist state.
v The Keynes-Hansen approach was very different. Keynes and Hansen showed that unemployment could result from the structure of the free economy itself. Hence, government intervention is essential in order to eliminate unemployment and to set in motion once more the forces of the free market.
THE CLARIFICATION OF GOALS
v The policy science approach puts emphasis upon basic problems and complex models and calls forth a very considerable clarification of the value goals involved in policy.
v For purposes of analysis, the term “value” means “a category of preferred events” as basis to evaluate human relations such as peace rather than war, high level of productive employment rather than mass unemployment, democracy rather than despotism, and congenial and productive personalities rather than destructive ones.
THE POLICY SCIENCES OF DEMOCRACY
v Policy science approach will bring about a series of “special” sciences within the general field of the socials sciences.
v One special science in the US is that the dominance of American tradition affirms the dignity of man, not the superiority of one set of men. The emphasis will be upon the development of knowledge pertinent to the fuller realization of human dignity. This is called the evolution of the “policy sciences of democracy.”
v The Carnegie Foundation supported a comprehensive survey of trends in ethnic relations in the US entitled “An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy” edited by Gunnar Myrdal in 1944. The purpose was to disclose the true state of affairs, to discover the conditioning factors, and stimulate policies against discrimination.
v Since WWII, the Committee for Economic Development has been continued for the purpose of developing long-range researchers and recommendations for the maintenance of a free-market economy. This was initiated by Paul G. Hoffman, the first head of the committee.
THE AWARENESS OF TIME
v Policy orientation carries with it a sharpened sense of time (e.g. “American Dilemma”).
v Emphasis on time is not exhausted in the selection of a policy-oriented project.
v No sooner do you become interested in future goals than you look sharply into the present and the past in order to discover the degree in which trends approximate values.
SPACE INCLUDES THE GLOBE
v The perspective of a policy-oriented science is world-wide, since the people of the world constitute a community.
v It is possible to examine the world affairs from the point of view of the invention diffusion and restriction of social institutions. Example of this is Moscow which is considered as the eruptive center of the world revolutionary pattern during that time.
v One of the tasks of political analysis and management is to assist or to restrict the diffusion of such unnecessary pattern.
DEVELOPMENTAL CONSTRUCTS: THE WORLD REVOLUTION OF OUR TIME
v Developmental constructs refer only to the succession of events, future as well as past.
v Developmental constructs are aids in the total task of clarifying goals, noting trends, and estimating future possibilities.
v One of the major tasks of the policy sciences is to follow in detail the processes of social invention, diffusion, and restriction throughout the globe for the sake of estimating the significance of specific events.
THE PROBLEM ATTITUDE
v Successful ideas cannot be guaranteed in advance but problem attitude can be cultivated. Problem attitude increases the probability that the thinker will act as a maternity hospital for the delivery of a historically viable policy proposal.
v The expectation of violence (whether war or revolution) calls for the greatest ingenuity in devising policies capable of reducing the cost of bringing to fruition.
THE BUILDING OF INSTITUTIONS
v One purpose of building institutions is to provide for continuous surveys in order to keep operational indexes properly calibrated.
v An important event related to this is the work of John Dewey and other American philosophers by launching an experimental school movement. This involves the “operational indexes” that is needed to be specified if terms are intended to designate events.
v The observational standpoint is the procedure used in entering the situation for data-gathering (protocol-making) purposes.
v Another important event is the setting up of a continuing survey of international tensions. This survey was made by UNESCO.
v There is also the setting up of comprehensive institutions of self-observation and they use pretesting procedures to assist in the evaluation of policy alternatives. This is largely use in the world of business (new products, change in packaging, etc.)
v Personnel policies are also sometimes pretested. Systematic pretesting can be extended from the market to many other situations in society.
SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ARE NOT THE SOLE CONTRIBUTORS TO THE POLICY SCIENCES
v Social scientists are not the only contributors to the policy sciences. Although specialists in social and psychological theory will improve the basic analysis of the policy-forming process.
v Men of experience in active policy-making (in business, government, and similar institutions with great intellectual curiosity and objectivity) can make greater contributions to basic analysis.
v New institutions are needed to bring the academician and the active policy-maker into fruitful association for a better outcome of the policy science conception. The cultivation of the technique of bringing about easy co-operation among “interdisciplinary teams” is one of the principal tasks of an evolving policy science.
v Policy science approach includes knowledge about policy making process and also the assembling and evaluating of knowledge from whatever relevant source.
SUMMARY
v American social and psychological sciences emphasized the improvement of method especially quantitative method between the two world wars.
v Policy sciences are considered as the disciplines concerned with explaining the policy-making and policy-executing process. They are used in locating data and providing interpretations which are relevant to the policy problems of a given period.
v Policy approach implies that fundamental and often neglected problems which arise in the adjustment of man in society are to be dealt with.
v Policy emphasis calls for the choice of problems which will contribute to the goal values of the scientist, and the use of scrupulous objectivity and maximum technical ingenuity in executing the projects undertaken.
v Policy frame of reference makes it necessary to take into account the entire context of significant events (past, present and prospective) in which the scientist is living.
v It is important to develop specialized institutions to observe and report developments. This includes pretesting of possible changes in social practice before they are introduced on a vast scale.
v The objective of providing the knowledge needed to improve the practice of democracy in the US gives emphasis upon the policy sciences.
v The ultimate goal of policy orientation is the realization of human dignity in theory and fact.
Reference: Korean Association for Public Administration (1980). Selected Readings in Public Administration. South Korea: Da San Publishing Company. 405-422
v “Policy” is commonly used to designate the most important choices made either in organized or in private life.
v Policy orientation is focused upon the scientific study of policy where the needs of policy intelligence are uppermost. Thus, any item of knowledge, within or without the limits of the social disciplines may be relevant. It deals with the dominant current among many scholars and scientists specifically in the social sciences. Its aim is toward improved policy sciences of democracy.
o The first goal is directed toward policy process which aims for the development of a science of policy forming and execution by using the methods of social and psychological inquiry.
o The second goal is toward the intelligence needs of policy which is the improving of the concrete content of the information and the interpretations available to policy-makers, typically goes outside the boundaries of social science and psychology.
v The use of the term “policy sciences” for the purpose of designating the content of the policy orientation during any given period. It deals with the social, psychological, and natural sciences in so far as they have a bearing on the policy needs of a given period for adequate intelligence.
o The methods by which the policy process is investigated;
o The results of the study of policy; and
o The findings of the disciplines making the most important contributions to the intelligence needs of the time.
v The “policy scientists” is the term in common use for academic teachers and writers about government.
v The developments of research are very important for the understanding of human choice.
v The task of improving the intelligence function depends upon more effective techniques of communication, among research workers, policy advisers, and the makers of final decisions.
v The quality of the intelligence function at any given time depends upon the successful anticipation of policy needs before they have been generally recognized.
v Successful prediction depends upon the cultivation of certain patterns of thinking. This includes:
o The entire context of events (the world as a whole) which may have an impact upon the future problems of policy; and
o The cultivation of practice of thinking of the past and the future as parts of one context; using “developmental constructs” as tools for exploring the flow of events in time.
v Valuable contributions to the general theory of choice include the works of mathematician von Neumann and economist Morgenstern called “rational theory of choice” or also called “theory of games.”
THE EMPHASIS ON METHOD
v The meaning of current developments in studying policy orientation will be more visible by reviewing the trends between World War I and World War II.
o It was the turning point in the history of the social and psychological sciences in the US.
o Quantitative methods were used in the disciplines bringing rapid influence.
§ Economists were employed to estimate the facilities, manpower, and resources necessary to produce munitions needed by the armed forces. They could manipulate data in the light of a system of general postulates, laws, and hypotheses.
§ Psychologists used “intelligence tests” as a quick means of selecting personnel for various operations with the aid of statistical procedures.
v Charles E. Merriam, professor of political science at the University of Chicago, took the initiative in organizing the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) – a delegate body of scholarly associations in political science, economics, sociology, psychology, and other social sciences.
v The organization of the SSRC took national attention in the US during the postwar generation.
v Evidence on the stress on method was the Committee on Scientific Method which was appointed by the SSRC. In 1931, Stuart A. Rice edited: “Methods in Social Science: A Casebook” containing 52 methodological analyses of contributions to the social sciences.
v Another means of stimulating interest in method was the post-doctoral fellowship program of the SSRC encouraging young scholars to improve their scientific equipment by adding new technique to their primary specialization.
THE CONSEQUENCE OF DEPRESSION AND WAR
v During the WWII, economists continue to make great contributions in the mobilization of the American economy. The courageous forecasts and plans of a key group of economists on the War Production Board had a decisive impact on the tempo of effective participation of US in the war. This is evident through the works of Stacy May, Simon Kuznets, Robert Nathan, and their associates.
v Even psychologist became more effective during WWII by measuring aptitudes and personality structure. Prominent sociologists and social psychologists known during this time were Samuel A. Stouffer, his associates, Prof. L. L. Thurstone, and others.
v The battle for method is won (quantitative method). This is the point at which consideration of policy come into the picture.
v The “Knowledge for what?” is the title of the lecture of Professor Robert S. Lynd of Columbia University and long secretary of SSRC. The lecture was presented at Princeton University in 1939 in which he insisted the importance of utilizing all available means of acquiring knowledge in order to cope with the gigantic crises of the time.
v All the resources of our expanding social science, policy approach need to be directed toward the basic conflicts in our civilization which are so vividly disclosed by the application of scientific method to the study of personality and culture.
CHOOSING FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
v The basic emphasis of the policy approach is upon the fundamental problems of man in society and not upon the topical issues of the moment.
v Harry Stack Sullivan and other psychiatrists traced in detail the fundamental importance of self-esteem for the healthy evolution of human personality. This is based on the belief that “unless the infant and the child are able to love themselves, they are incapable of loving each other.”
v By studying the psychotic, neurotic, and psychopathic manifestations of distorted development, the sources of human destructiveness can be changed. This move laid for a profound reconstruction of culture by continual study and emendation.
v Culture has impact on personality formation based on the works of Dr. Sullivan and his colleagues.
THE USE OF MODELS
v The richness of the context in the study of interpersonal relations is such that it can be expressed only in part in quantitative terms. Convincing results can be obtained by studies which are but partially summarized in numbers.
v Social scientists and psychiatrists have always derived their most fruitful hypotheses from complicated models.
v The New Deal approach by Franklin D. Roosevelt was a brilliant success in the sense that a far-reaching economic crisis was met by policies which were far short of the authoritarian measures of a Fascist or Communist state.
v The Keynes-Hansen approach was very different. Keynes and Hansen showed that unemployment could result from the structure of the free economy itself. Hence, government intervention is essential in order to eliminate unemployment and to set in motion once more the forces of the free market.
THE CLARIFICATION OF GOALS
v The policy science approach puts emphasis upon basic problems and complex models and calls forth a very considerable clarification of the value goals involved in policy.
v For purposes of analysis, the term “value” means “a category of preferred events” as basis to evaluate human relations such as peace rather than war, high level of productive employment rather than mass unemployment, democracy rather than despotism, and congenial and productive personalities rather than destructive ones.
THE POLICY SCIENCES OF DEMOCRACY
v Policy science approach will bring about a series of “special” sciences within the general field of the socials sciences.
v One special science in the US is that the dominance of American tradition affirms the dignity of man, not the superiority of one set of men. The emphasis will be upon the development of knowledge pertinent to the fuller realization of human dignity. This is called the evolution of the “policy sciences of democracy.”
v The Carnegie Foundation supported a comprehensive survey of trends in ethnic relations in the US entitled “An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy” edited by Gunnar Myrdal in 1944. The purpose was to disclose the true state of affairs, to discover the conditioning factors, and stimulate policies against discrimination.
v Since WWII, the Committee for Economic Development has been continued for the purpose of developing long-range researchers and recommendations for the maintenance of a free-market economy. This was initiated by Paul G. Hoffman, the first head of the committee.
THE AWARENESS OF TIME
v Policy orientation carries with it a sharpened sense of time (e.g. “American Dilemma”).
v Emphasis on time is not exhausted in the selection of a policy-oriented project.
v No sooner do you become interested in future goals than you look sharply into the present and the past in order to discover the degree in which trends approximate values.
SPACE INCLUDES THE GLOBE
v The perspective of a policy-oriented science is world-wide, since the people of the world constitute a community.
v It is possible to examine the world affairs from the point of view of the invention diffusion and restriction of social institutions. Example of this is Moscow which is considered as the eruptive center of the world revolutionary pattern during that time.
v One of the tasks of political analysis and management is to assist or to restrict the diffusion of such unnecessary pattern.
DEVELOPMENTAL CONSTRUCTS: THE WORLD REVOLUTION OF OUR TIME
v Developmental constructs refer only to the succession of events, future as well as past.
v Developmental constructs are aids in the total task of clarifying goals, noting trends, and estimating future possibilities.
v One of the major tasks of the policy sciences is to follow in detail the processes of social invention, diffusion, and restriction throughout the globe for the sake of estimating the significance of specific events.
THE PROBLEM ATTITUDE
v Successful ideas cannot be guaranteed in advance but problem attitude can be cultivated. Problem attitude increases the probability that the thinker will act as a maternity hospital for the delivery of a historically viable policy proposal.
v The expectation of violence (whether war or revolution) calls for the greatest ingenuity in devising policies capable of reducing the cost of bringing to fruition.
THE BUILDING OF INSTITUTIONS
v One purpose of building institutions is to provide for continuous surveys in order to keep operational indexes properly calibrated.
v An important event related to this is the work of John Dewey and other American philosophers by launching an experimental school movement. This involves the “operational indexes” that is needed to be specified if terms are intended to designate events.
v The observational standpoint is the procedure used in entering the situation for data-gathering (protocol-making) purposes.
v Another important event is the setting up of a continuing survey of international tensions. This survey was made by UNESCO.
v There is also the setting up of comprehensive institutions of self-observation and they use pretesting procedures to assist in the evaluation of policy alternatives. This is largely use in the world of business (new products, change in packaging, etc.)
v Personnel policies are also sometimes pretested. Systematic pretesting can be extended from the market to many other situations in society.
SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ARE NOT THE SOLE CONTRIBUTORS TO THE POLICY SCIENCES
v Social scientists are not the only contributors to the policy sciences. Although specialists in social and psychological theory will improve the basic analysis of the policy-forming process.
v Men of experience in active policy-making (in business, government, and similar institutions with great intellectual curiosity and objectivity) can make greater contributions to basic analysis.
v New institutions are needed to bring the academician and the active policy-maker into fruitful association for a better outcome of the policy science conception. The cultivation of the technique of bringing about easy co-operation among “interdisciplinary teams” is one of the principal tasks of an evolving policy science.
v Policy science approach includes knowledge about policy making process and also the assembling and evaluating of knowledge from whatever relevant source.
SUMMARY
v American social and psychological sciences emphasized the improvement of method especially quantitative method between the two world wars.
v Policy sciences are considered as the disciplines concerned with explaining the policy-making and policy-executing process. They are used in locating data and providing interpretations which are relevant to the policy problems of a given period.
v Policy approach implies that fundamental and often neglected problems which arise in the adjustment of man in society are to be dealt with.
v Policy emphasis calls for the choice of problems which will contribute to the goal values of the scientist, and the use of scrupulous objectivity and maximum technical ingenuity in executing the projects undertaken.
v Policy frame of reference makes it necessary to take into account the entire context of significant events (past, present and prospective) in which the scientist is living.
v It is important to develop specialized institutions to observe and report developments. This includes pretesting of possible changes in social practice before they are introduced on a vast scale.
v The objective of providing the knowledge needed to improve the practice of democracy in the US gives emphasis upon the policy sciences.
v The ultimate goal of policy orientation is the realization of human dignity in theory and fact.
Reference: Korean Association for Public Administration (1980). Selected Readings in Public Administration. South Korea: Da San Publishing Company. 405-422
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