SUBMITTED BY: J. B. NANGPUHAN II, MPA
SUBMITTED TO: DR. J. K. SEO
SUBJECT: URBAN POLICY
DEPARTMENT: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIVERSITY: CHONNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Synopsis
The main focuses of this
term paper are the terms urban and city. This paper presents the underlying
concepts of urban policy and its role for city sustainability. Although there
are several concepts of urban policy in terms of its purpose, the democratic concept
(an emerging universal concept) focus
towards the attainment of quality of life
especially in cities - a place where people should feel the satisfaction of
life. Toward this end, the first part of this paper introduces some highlights
discussed by Dr. J. K. Seo in the urban policy course – this gives an
overview on how ideas were presented in this paper. In fact, the discussions
about urban policy influenced my urban perspective.
Then the next part
presents the concepts of urban policy and sustainability in cities – an
introduction to the core concept of sustainability. It goes on to present the situation
of cities and the world based on international reports, some problems/challenges
in cities, and the need to lay down policies for sustainability of cities. Finally,
the last part presents sustainability efforts being conducted by some
organizations – the plan to share knowledge and experiences between cities
around the world. This will help develop a synchronized city planning,
implementation and continuous monitoring of city projects and activities.
I. BACKGROUND
Throughout the duration
of our course in Urban Policy, several issues and concerns about the term urban have been discussed. There are
eight highlights in relation to our course: the concept of urbanization,
optimal city-size, growth pole, city marketing, innovative cities, financing
urban development, land use policy, and urban housing policy. Each of these
highlights has been explicitly discussed in-depth by Dr. Seo. This paper
presents a brief overview of the highlights.
Urbanization started in Southeast Europe
in 700 B.C.1 then it gradually spread across the continent and the
world. Urbanization is expressed as the proportion of people living in urban
places. Most people live in urban areas, abandoning the countryside. Cities and
the urban networks they formed were always an important factor in the
development and shaping of its surrounding regions.
However, the increasing
number of people moving into the urban area creates the problem of overcrowding.
The populations of those largest cities in the world have developed beyond an
optimal size. The optimal city size
has indicated 250,0002 to be the most popular number of people
living in a city. But actual numbers show that the populations of most cities
go overboard. In Australia for instance, politicians have adopted policies to
encourage the growth of smaller cities and to promote decentralization. This
move is being considered as one solution to limit the problem of overcrowding
of cities.
The continuous expansion
of the economy in which the city is the driving force brought about the concept
of growth poles3. Growth
poles affect regional development policies. Because of scale and agglomeration
economies near the growth pole, regional development is unbalanced. Transportation,
especially transport terminals can play significant role in such a process. At
a later stage, emergence of secondary growth pole can be possible.
Nevertheless, embracing this concept takes time in which it might or it might
not succeed in other cities.
On the other hand, whilst
some cities are developing faster in terms of economy, social and environmental
aspects, other cities are stagnant or no development at all. The use of urban/city marketing4
strategies in these cities are very important. City marketing is more than the
mere promotion of a place, it is being used in some cities to rebuild and
redefine their image. In the case of Glasgow, an industrial UK city in decline,
the use of city marketing techniques started in 1980s. Its focus was to solve
problems of unemployment and migration of its residents to other cities. The
end purpose of city marketing is to attract inward investment. In terms of
tourism, there was a visible success in the efforts of Glasgow with the
increase in the number of visitors in 1990 mainly because of its designation as
the City of Culture.
Other efforts to improve
the economics of cities include the construction of innovation cities5. The purpose of constructing innovation
cities is to balance national development by distributing the concentration of
political, economic, and social activities in certain areas of the country, not
just in the capital region. In South Korea for instance, the attempt to
construct innovation cities started in 20036. 10 innovation cities
in different areas were identified by the Korean government to represent provincial
regions and metropolitan cities. However, partial results of this overly
ambitious initiative indicate some negative as well as positive effects. It
shows that the construction of innovation cities is no more than a political
slogan as has been experienced numerous times.
Such government
initiatives like the innovation cities, the need to develop a financing scheme
should be put in place. The concept of urban
regeneration7 is allied with the involvement of the private sector.
This partnership in both public and private sectors will boost the living
standards in urban areas. Also, land-use
regulation8 by the use of zoning, development impact fees,
growth boundaries, and comprehensive plans are necessary components of
urbanization as well. On the one hand, urban
housing9 policies should also be considered to avoid problems
such as gentrification and that a harmonious urban life will be achieved.
II. CONCEPT OF URBAN POLICY
II. CONCEPT OF URBAN POLICY
Urban policy is defined
as a course of action adopted and pursued by government, business or some other
organization, which seeks to improve or develop cities or towns through land
use planning, water resource management, central city development, policing and
criminal justice, or pollution control10.
As previously described in this paper, the overall goal of such urban policy is
to improve the well-being of the people living in the urban area. In other
words, economic-social-environmental developments should promote quality of
life for the people. However, this concept is sometimes diverted due to
political conflicts and self-interest. The worst thing is, more and more people
suffer due to the failures of leaders and implementers in executing and
implementing the positive goal of urban policy.
III. CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY IN CITIES
III. CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY IN CITIES
A sustainable city
enhances the economic, social, cultural and environmental well-being of current
and future generations11.
This simple concept is quite very difficult to achieve because of the
involvement of several indicators. Indicators include economic status, social
behavior, cultural background, language, etc. Residents in a city are diverse,
they come from different backgrounds. How to achieve an enhance well-being is
not only the task of one but the task of everyone. Sustainability has been
defined through the United Nations as a global process of development that
would minimize the use of environmental resources and reduce the impacts of
environmental sinks using modern processes that will improve the economy and
the quality of life12.
The sustainability of cities is being promoted by several international
organizations like UN Habitat and UCLG (United Cities and Local Government)
among others. These organizations are conducting collaboration efforts for
sustainability in many cities around the world. It will be discuss further in
the following pages of this paper.
IV. SITUATION OF URBANIZATION AND THE WORLD
IV. SITUATION OF URBANIZATION AND THE WORLD
Statistics indicate that
the present urbanization will continue throughout the world. But very different
types of cities are emerging. In Asia, for example, the current urban
population of 38% is predicted to increase to 50% by 2015, with many people
concentrated in metropolitan areas13.
In other regions such as Latin America, where 70% of the population is urban,
middle-sized and small cities keep growing. In the northern hemisphere, cities
often struggle to maintain an increasingly mobile workforce, and compete for
both young, skilled workers and new enterprises as local industries decline.
At present, Africa and
Asia are populated by young and aspirational people who are experiencing even
more rapid rates of urbanization. Cities play a crucial role for the continuing
evolution and sustainable growth. City officials have a role of instigating
urban planning, the most important concept of this paper. Urban planning integrates
land use planning and transportation planning to improve the built, economic
and social environments of communities. It can include urban renewal and
reconstruction, by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities suffering
from decay and lack of investment14.
An alarming report by the
United Nations Habitat (2011) indicates that environmental pollutions occur
mostly in cities –the issue of climate change. The report says that the
proportion of human-induced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions could be between 40
to 70 percent15.
The main sources of these emissions are related to the consumption of fossil
fuels like oil and gas. They include energy supply for electricity generation,
transportation, energy use in commercial and industrial buildings, industrial
production, and waste. Climate change and its future impacts to the people and
the environment are alarming as several forms of pollution increase throughout
the years.
V. OTHER CHALLENGES IN CITIES
V. OTHER CHALLENGES IN CITIES
Other problems in cities
include human-made interventions during the process of city development way
back centuries ago. Aside from unemployment and housing shortage problems, the
UCLG outline some challenges which need particular attention by local governments.
There are 13 of them16:
1. Demographic change and
migration
Changes in the population take different forms including an aging
population (in Europe). International migration is increasing, although it
slowed slightly in 2009 due to global recession. There are now 214 million
international migrants in the world today who are often drawn to opportunities
for work and access to services in cities. Local governments must consider
future population trends or even transformations when planning for their city.
2. Globalisation for the job
market
International companies and investors are not fixed to one region or
one country anymore. Instead, companies are constantly evaluating where the
most suitable conditions prevail – cheap labor cost, low land prices, and
possible incentives such as tax breaks, infrastructure or government grants or
aid. The growth of the Indian IT sector is a good example of how provision of
skilled labor can attract foreign investment and raise the competitiveness of a
city or region.
3. Poverty and unmet MDG
Poverty is increasing and many of the Millennium Development Goals
still have to be met in cities. Poverty is a global challenge and is worsening
rapidly due to the increase in slum populations worldwide, which is expected to
rise to 1.7 billion by 2030. The highest proportion of slum populations will be
in Sub-Saharan Africa. Local governments in all regions are requested to
provide social services, welfare or minimum infrastructure without counting on
sustainable financing to address these challenges. They must ensure universal
access to basic services and safeguard the rights of urban dwellers. This includes
not only water and sanitation, but also education, transport, health and
special attention to disadvantaged groups.
4. Segregation
Urban sprawl happened unequally, as urgent pressure leads to massive
urbanization that then becomes ghettoized. New urban developments become neighborhoods
dominated by certain ages or income groups. While the high income population
will insist on more control, privacy and connectivity, the low income
population is forced to live on the periphery, where there are lower levels of
services and infrastructure. As a result, city areas become divided: the
business districts demand services by day, the peripheries only come alive by
night and movement between the two happens during peak hours. To help balance
this problem, there is a need for cities to be socially integrated. Urban
policies should also be respectful and work towards social diversity and help
to shape new and flexible identities of cities.
5. Spatial patterns and urban
growth
Many cities just grew organically and did not plan for the number of
citizens who would depend on the city as a place for trade, jobs, education,
transport, healthcare, and specialized services. There is a need for local governments
to look into the attainment of these needs to serve the increasing number of
citizens coming to live into the city.
6. Metropolisation and rise
of urban regions
Urbanization is not happening in all territories with the same
intensity. While in certain regions, cities grow physically into each other,
other regions are relatively undeveloped or even shrink. To prosper as a
region, it is crucial for neighbors to cooperate rather than compete. Agreements
have to be achieved through new forms of inter-municipal cooperation, or “metropolitan
strategies” that have to find a place in the political landscape.
7. More political power for
local authorities
Decentralization gives elected administrators or citizens greater
powers of decision making and implementation, enabling them to allocate
resources in ways that are appropriate for the area. At the same time,
decentralization brings with it greater responsibility for local governments,
which requires sound planning. A major and recurring obstacle is that the
transfer of political power is not always accompanied by an equal transfer of
financial resources and the capacity to manage new responsibilities.
8. New actors for developing
a city and providing services
Citizens increasingly participate as actors in urban development
through new approaches such as participatory budgeting, community action
planning or neighbourhood initiatives. Such participation increases the sense
of ownership of the plans and encourages new forms of partnership with civil
society organizations. The control of management is becoming more and more
difficult, but it is an increasing reality that local governments should design
ways to adopt the situation.
9. Decline in public funding
for development
Global economic recession has had a dramatic impact on financial
resources for local government around the world as investments and revenues
from business taxes or planning applications decline. Improved management is
therefore crucial to increase efficiency as are skills sharing and knowledge of
best practices.
10. The environment and
climate change
Pressures of poverty and population on the natural environment are
intensifying as urban areas expand into rural areas, which can lead to a loss
in agricultural land and deforestation. With the ongoing urbanization and the
scarcity of urban land, more and more people will be forced to settle in high
risk areas. These populations are usually the most vulnerable, and thus the
ones most affected by natural disasters. However, risks can be mitigated by
resourceful urban planning and adaptation measures and commitment to building
standards can prevent some disasters such as flooding, landslides or damage from
earthquakes. Adaptation is a vital part of any sustainable strategic plan, and
prioritization is crucial in Asia, as pointed out in the debates in that
region.
11. New and accessible
building technologies
Housing, rapid bus systems, technologies are constantly being
developed and adapted around the world. New patterns and innovations are
increasingly found in developing countries where urban infrastructures are
massively developed. For instance, skyscrapers in China these days do not
necessarily look all that different from skyscrapers in New York.
12. Preparing for energy
uncertainty and limits of growth
Fossil fuels, oil, and gas are considered limited resources. Experts
agree that energy shortages are to be expected in this century. Cities need to
start preparing for this situation now and try to break their dependence on
oil, especially by addressing alternative transport and domestic energy use. New
concepts of energy supply must include other aspects of a city, such as food
and the energy required to transport it from farm to fork.
13. Global communications and
partnerships
The internet has become a powerful tool for citizen information and
participation, both globally and at neighbourhood level. E-governance has
become a powerful tool for local governments over the past decade. But this
tool is only applicable to high number of internet connections and not all
cities have access to this service.
VI. URBAN POLICIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF CITIES – THE RECOMMENDATIONS
VI. URBAN POLICIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF CITIES – THE RECOMMENDATIONS
The 13 challenges
mentioned above along with other related challenges and problems in the urban
areas need to be addressed by local governments. The most effective way to
achieve this is by strategic planning both short-term and long-term. Some recommendations
to ensure the success of strategic planning will be discussed here. There are
two sources of these recommendations, the UCLG recommendation and the UN
Habitat recommendation. For the UCLG recommendation, it is mostly concentrated
on strategic planning. The UCLG recommendation is addressed to local
governments, national governments, academic sector, international
organizations, NGOs and local communities, private sector, local government
associations, networks, and UCLG member cities as well. There are 8 UCLG
recommendations17:
1. Strategic plans must establish
clear priorities which are synchronized with other spheres of government and
enabling multi-governmental interventions. It must be performance-driven;
2. Strategic plans must be
sustainable, based on clear values, on proper and updated data and use of resources
transparently;
3. Strategic plans must be
cooperative including both public and private sector participation;
4. Strategic plans with particular
consideration of sectoral and spatial plans, must pay specific attention to
poor, vulnerable, and marginalized people;
5. Strategic plans must reflect
proper principles and models of urban development, taking into account local
spatial patterns and sustainability of the urban and land use, giving preference
to a compact city model;
6. The new generation of strategic
plans should anticipate demand and address the urgent challenges of the
depletion of natural resources, environmental
degradation, mitigation of climate change, and adaptation of its
effects;
7. Strategic plans must contribute
to the construction of social capital, and recognize and build on the
characteristics of the region and its people; and
8. Strategic plans contribute to
the identity of cities and their distinctiveness, and are a unique opportunity
to align local narratives to regional, national and international challenges.
The UN report suggests
specific roles for the international community, for the national level of which
the concern country is responsible, and for the local level18. The
international community should address the following:
a. Financial resources need to be made more directly available to
local players – for example, for climate change adaptation in vulnerable
cities, for investment in a portfolio of alternative energy options, and in
mitigation partnerships between local governments and local private sector organizations;
b. Bureaucratic burden on local
access to international support should be eased, with the international
community helping to direct communication and accountability channels between
local actors and international donors; and
c. Specific on climate change,
information on climate change science and options for mitigation and adaptation
responses should be made more widely available by the international community.
With respect
to the national level, the national governments should use the following
mechanisms to enable mitigation and adaptation responses:
a. Engage in the design and
implementation of national mitigation strategies and adaptation planning;
b. Offer tax rebates, tax
exceptions and other incentives for investments in alternative energy sources,
energy-efficient appliances, and climate-proof infrastructure, houses and
appliances, among other climate change mitigation and adaptation actions;
c. Encourage appropriate climate
responses (for example, redesign policies with other issues in mind or in
periods prior to climate change, such as flood protection policies that can
result in maladaptation;
d. Enhance coordination and
streamlining between sectoral and administrative entities (for instance, make
sure that decision by one city to protect coastal areas with barriers do not
have impacts on basins that are suppliers of fresh water, or wetland ecologies
that are important to the economic base of that city or other cities inland);
e. Develop partnerships with
non-governmental actors to share risks (for example, national government can
work with private insurance providers to offer protection to each city without
requiring each to make sizeable investment in order to reduce risks from a
particular kind of low probability threat); and
f. Anticipate and plan for the
possibility of much more substantial climate change impacts and adaptation
needs in the longer term than those that are currently anticipated in the next
decades.
For the
local level, urban policy-makers should begin from an awareness of local
development aspirations and preferences, local knowledge of needs and options,
local realities that shape choices, and local potential for innovation. In this
context, local authorities should:
a. Develop a vision of where they
want their future want to go and find ways to relate climate change responses
to urban development aspirations;
b. Expand the scope of community
participation and action by representatives of the private sector,
neighbourhoods (especially the poor) and grassroots groups, as well as opinion
leaders of all kinds, in order to ensure a broad-based collection of
perspectives; and
c. Using an inclusive,
participatory process, cities should conduct vulnerability assessments to
identify common and differentiated risks to their urban development plans and their
different demographic sectors, and decide on objectives and ways to reduce
those risks.
VII. CITIES AS SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEMS
VII. CITIES AS SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEMS
An interesting argument
by some cities for this present generation is the issue of branding cities as sustainable ecosystems (CASE)19.
Under this concept, it is hoped that humans and their settlements can play a
positive role within the circle of life, nourishing both community and
bioregional needs, and ultimately contributing to the restoration of vital
ecological processes at all scales. The organizing principle of this concept is
the ten Melbourne Principles for Sustainable Cities. These principles developed
at an international collaborative session (charette) held in Melbourne in 2002
and endorsed by local governments at the Johannesburg Earth Summit in 2003. The
Table below are the 10 principles:
| Table 1. The Ten Melbourne Principles for Sustainable Cities | |
| 1. Vision | Provide a long-term vision for cities based on sustainability; intergenerational, social, economic, and political equity; and their individuality. |
| 2. Economy and Society | Achieve long-term economic and social security. |
| 3. Biodiversity | Recognize the intrinsic value of biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and protect and restore them. |
| 4. Ecological Footprints | Enable communities to minimize their ecological footprints. |
| 5. Model Cities on Ecosystems | Build on the characteristics of ecosystems in the development and nurturing of healthy and sustainable cities. |
| 6. Sense of Place | Recognize and build on the distinctive characteristics of cities, including their human and cultural values, history, and natural systems. |
| 7. Empowerment | Empower people and foster participation. |
| 8. Partnerships | Expand and enable cooperative networks to work toward a common, sustainable future. |
| 9. Sustainable Production and Consumption | Promote sustainable production and consumption through appropriate use of environmentally sound technologies and effective demand management. |
| 10. Governance and Hope | Enable continual improvement based on accountability, transparency, and good governance. |
Source: UNEP/IETC 2002
VIII. CONCLUSION
Urban policy has a very
wide role in the development of cities and urbanization. Its significant role
to sustainability is increasingly being used by all sectors of society as an
approach to development. The problems and challenges posed into cities need
careful planning by local government leaders, along with the active
participation of all sectors (private sector, academic sector, international
organizations, NGOs, local communities, etc).
Globalization forced
cities to synchronize their plans to be able to adapt relevant policies in
terms of economy, social, and environmental aspects. For instance, climate
change is not only the problem of one person or city, but a problem of every
person, either rich or poor. Cities should be able to formulate strategic plans
(both short-term and long-term) to meet future demands. It would be interesting
for cities to consider the recommendations of UCLG, UN Habitat, and also to
consider the ten Melbourne Principles for sustainable cities. In the end, the
final decision must be considered by city officials in consultation to their
people. If this is rationally and fairly done, then sustainability (well-being
and quality of life) can be achieved.
IX. REFERENCES
IX. REFERENCES
1Antrop,
Marc (2004). Landscape Change and the Urbanization Process in Europe. Landscape
and Urban Planning. Elsevier Publishing. University of Ghent. Belgium
2Tisdell,
C. (1975). The Theory of Optimal City-Sizes: Elementary Speculations about
Analysis and Policy. Urban Studies. University of Newcastle. New South Wales
3Lausen,
J.R. (1969). On Growth Poles. Urban Studies. Sage Publications
4Paddison,
Ronan (1992). City Marketing, Image Reconstruction and Urban Regeneration. Urban
Studies. Glasgow, UK
5Seo,
Joon-Kyo (2009). Balanced National Development Strategies: The Construction of
Innovation Cities in Korea. Land Use Policy. Elsevier Publishing. Chonnam
National University. Gwangju, Republic of Korea
6Ibid. Seo, Joon -Kyo
7Adair,
A., Berry, J., McGreal, S., Deddis, B., Hirst, S. (2000). The Financing of
Urban Regeneration. Land Use Policy. Elsevier Publishing. University of Ulster.
Northern Ireland, UK
8Feiock,
Richard C. (2004). Politics, Institutions and Local Land-use Regulation. Urban
Studies. Carfax Publishing. Florida State University. Florida, USA
9Cameron,
Stuart (2003). Gentrification, Housing Redifferentiation and Urban
Regeneration: ‘Going for Growth’ in Newcastle upon Tyne. Urban Studies. Carfax
Publishing. University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle, UK
10Urban
Policy: http://www.eionet.europa.eu/gemet/concept?ns=1&cp=8832
11Seymoar,
Nola-Kate (2008). Implementing Sustainability and Changing Behavior: Lessons
from the Field. Solar Cities Congress. Sustainable Cities. Vancouver, Canada
12Newman,
Peter W.G.(1999). Sustainability and Cities: Extending the Metabolism Model. Landscape
and Urban Planning. Murdoch University. Elsevier Publishing. Perth, Australia
13UCLG
Policy Paper of Urban Strategic Planning: Local Leaders Preparing for the
Future of our Cities (2010). United Cities and Local Governments. Mexico
14Urban
Planning: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_planning
15Cities
and Climate Change: Policy Directions. Global Report on Human Settlements
(2011). United Nations Human Settlements Programme. Earthscan Publishing.
London, UK
16Ibid.
UCLG
17Ibid.
UCLG
18Ibid.
UN Habitat
19Newman,
Peter, Dr., Jennings, Isabella (2008). Cities as Sustainable Ecosystems:
Principles and Practices. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
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